The encounter between the "Old World" and the "New World" was not a random accident, but the collision of two expanding, militaristic, and deeply religious empires. To understand the Spanish Conquest, we must first understand the internal engines driving both the Iberian kingdoms (Castile and Aragon) and the Aztec Empire in Mesoamerica. This post synthesizes the lecture notes and readings on the era immediately preceding 1519.
1. The Iberian Context: Reconquest and The Cortes
Before the Spanish set their sights on the Atlantic, their national identity was forged in the fire of the Reconquista (Reconquest). For centuries, the Christian kingdoms of the north fought to reclaim the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule. This was not merely a territorial war; it was a religious crusade. The successful conclusion of the Reconquista in 1492—the surrender of Granada—created a society that viewed military conquest, religious conversion, and the acquisition of wealth as inseparable goals. The Spanish conquistadors were essentially bringing the Reconquista mentality to a new theater.
However, the power of the Spanish monarchs (Ferdinand and Isabella) was not absolute. It was historically checked by institutions known as the Cortes. The Cortes were parliamentary assemblies representing the nobility, clergy, and towns. They held the power to approve taxes and petition the crown, creating a political tradition where the monarchy had to negotiate with its subjects—a dynamic that would later play out in the administration of the colonies.
2. European Expansion: Goals, Motives, and Myths
Why did Europe expand when it did? A common misconception is that European "superiority" (intellectual or technological) made expansion inevitable. As the readings highlight, other powers like China (under Admiral Zheng He) had the capacity to expand but chose not to.
The European drive was fueled by a specific set of necessities and ambitions:
- Geography and Technology: Innovations like the caravel (ships with triangular sails and pintle rudders) and the astrolabe allowed sailors to master the Atlantic winds.
- Economic Desperation: Europe was desperate to bypass the Ottoman and Venetian middlemen who controlled the spice trade. As seen in the speech by Afonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese goal in taking cities like Melaka was to "extinguish the fire of the Mohammedan sect" and monopolize the spice trade for the King.
- Religious Zeal: The sources from Columbus and Albuquerque are drenched in religious language. They viewed their violence as a service to "Our Lord," aiming to encircle and defeat Islam while spreading Christianity.
The Columbus Agreements (1492) The legal contracts between Christopher Columbus and the "Catholic Monarchs" reveal the high stakes of these ventures. Columbus was not a mere explorer; he was an aspiring aristocrat. His agreement granted him the titles of Admiral and Viceroy over any lands discovered. Furthermore, he secured the right to keep one-tenth of all wealth (pearls, gold, spices) generated from these lands, tax-free. This was a joint-stock venture of immense scale, blending state authority with private ambition.
3. Mesoamerica Before 1519: The Aztec Social Order
Across the Atlantic, the Aztec Empire (centered in Tenochtitlán) had built a sophisticated and stratified society that, in many ways, mirrored the complexity of Christendom.
The Political Hierarchy
At the pinnacle of Aztec society stood the Tlatoani (plural tlatoque), a title translating to "He Who Speaks." The Tlatoani was the supreme ruler, serving as the voice of the state and the intermediary with the gods. The empire saw a succession of powerful rulers who expanded its reach, including Itzcóatl (the empire builder), Moctezuma I, Ahuitzotle, and finally Moctezuma II, who would face the Spanish.
The Four Status Groups
Aztec society was not egalitarian; it was essentially caste-based. We can identify four primary status groups:
- The Pilli (Nobility): The ruling elite. They held the highest military and priestly offices and owned private land.
- The Macehual (Commoners): The vast majority of the population. They were free citizens who worked the land and served in the military.
- The Mayeque: These were comparable to European serfs. Unlike commoners, they were attached to the private lands of the nobility, a system reminiscent of the Roman or Spanish latifundia (large landed estates). They did not have rights to calpulli land.
- Slaves (Tlacotin): Individuals who owed service due to debts, criminal acts, or being captured in war.
Social Organization: The Calpulli
The fundamental unit of Aztec society was the Calpulli. This was more than just a neighborhood; it was a clan-based district that held land in common. The calpulli was responsible for organizing labor, collecting tribute, and maintaining temples. It provided the social safety net and the organizational structure for the Aztec state.
Ideology: Essentialism and Sacrifice
The stability of this rigid hierarchy was maintained through Essentialism—the belief that social differences were inherent and natural—and the state religion. Human sacrifice was not just a ritual; it was a political tool and a cosmic necessity, believed to keep the sun moving and the universe in balance. It also served to terrorize subject peoples and reinforce the power of the Tlatoani.
4. Comparative Analysis
When reviewing the "Guiding Questions," the parallel between Christendom and Aztec society becomes striking. Both societies were:
- Highly Stratified: Europe had its Kings, Nobles, and Serfs; the Aztecs had the Tlatoani, Pilli, and Mayeque.
- Militaristic: The Spanish were hardened by the Reconquista; the Aztecs were shaped by wars of expansion and the need for sacrificial captives.
- Religiously Motivated: Both cultures viewed their expansion as a divine mandate—the Spanish to spread the Gospel, the Aztecs to sustain the cosmos.
Understanding these internal structures explains why the collision of 1519 was so violent and total: it was a meeting of two empires that spoke the language of war and absolute hierarchy.